Definitions of Social Capital
The commonalities of most definitions of social capital are that they focus on social relations that have productive benefits. The variety of definitions identified in the literature stem from the highly context specific nature of social capital and the complexity of its conceptualization and operationalization.
Social capital does not have a clear, undisputed meaning, for substantive and ideological reasons (Dolfsma and Dannreuther 2003; Foley and Edwards 1997). For this reason there is no set and commonly agreed upon definition of social capital and the particular definition adopted by a study will depend on the discipline and level of investigation (Robison et al. 2002). Not surprisingly considering the different frameworks for looking at social capital there is considerable disagreement and even contradiction in the definitions of social capital (Adler and Kwon 2002). Because of the difficulties in defining social capital, authors tend to discuss the concept, its intellectual origin, its diversity of applications and some of its unresolved issues before adopting a school of thought and adding their own definition (Adam and Roncevic 2003). It has been suggested that a cross disciplinary definition would be less important if scholars were to redefine and appreciate other discipline's definitions (SCIG 2000). SCIG (2000) further identified that all studies must discuss social capital in relation to the particular discipline, study level and context and that a set definition for such is not required, only an identification of operationalization or conceptualization (SCIG 2000). Other authors have identified that definitions vary depending on whether they focus on the substance, the sources, or the effects of social capital (Adler and Kwon 2002; Field et al. 2000; Robison et al. 2002). Grootaert and Van Bastelaer (2002b) supported this view identifying that the main cause of variance in definitions is caused by focusing on the form, source or consequence of social capital. Social capital is multidimensional and must be conceptualized as such to have any explanatory value (Eastis 1998). Some authors see social capital as an economic term and do not adequately take account of its multi - dimensional and multi - disciplinary nature, for example Day (2002).
Social capital is about the value of social networks, bonding similar people and bridging between diverse people, with norms of reciprocity (Dekker and Uslaner 2001; Uslaner 2001). Sander (2002, p. 213) stated that 'the folk wisdom that more people get their jobs from whom they know, rather than what they know, turns out to be true'. Adler and Kwon (2002) identified that the core intuition guiding social capital research is that the goodwill that others have toward us is a valuable resource. As such they define social capital as 'the goodwill available to individuals or groups. Its source lies in the structure and content of the actor's social relations. Its effects flow from the information, influence, and solidarity it makes available to the actor' (Adler and Kwon 2002, p. 23). Dekker and Uslaner (2001) posited that social capital is fundamentally about how people interact with each other.
There are therefore numerous definitions of social capital found in the literature. A considerable number of definitions have been listed in the table below (adapted from Adler and Kwon 2002). They vary depending on whether their focus is primarily on (1) the relations an actor maintains with other actors, (2) the structure of relations among actors within a collectivity, or (3) both types of linkages (Adler and Kwon 2002). A focus on external relations have also been called 'bridging' (Woolcock 1998) or 'communal' (Oh et al. 1999) and a focus on internal relations 'bonding' or 'linking'. Similar categorization could be done according to other criteria such as strong or weak ties, horizontal or vertical, open or closed, structural or cognitive, geographically dispersed or circumscribed, and instrumental or principled (further discussion of these types and categorizations can be found in the types of social capital section). In table 2 below the external definitions are those that focus primarily on the relations as actors maintain with other actors the internal are those that focus on the structure of relations among actors within a collectivity and both types of linkages (Adler and Kwon 2002).
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External versus Internal
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Authors |
Definitions of Social Capital |
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Baker |
'a resource that actors derive from specific social structures and then use to pursue their interests; it is created by changes in the relationship among actors'; (Baker 1990, p. 619). |
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Belliveau, O'Reilly, Wade
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'an individual's personal network and elite institutional affiliations' (Belliveau et al. 1996, p. 1572).
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Bourdieu |
'the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance or recognition' (Bourdieu 1986, p. 248).
'made up of social obligations ('connections'), which is convertible, in certain conditions, into economic capital and may be institutionalized in the form of a title of nobility' (Bourdieu 1986, p. 243). |
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Bourdieu Wacquant
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'the sum of the resources, actual or virtual, that accrue to an individual or a group by virtue of possessing a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition' (Bourdieu and Wacquant 1992, p. 119). |
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Boxman, De Graai. Flap |
'the number of people who can be expected to provide support and the resources those people have at their disposal' (Boxman et al. 1991, p. 52). |
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Burt |
'friends, colleagues, and more general contacts through whom you receive opportunities to use your financial and human capital' (Burt 1992, p. 9).
'the brokerage opportunities in a network' (Burt 1997, p. 355). |
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Knoke |
'the process by which social actors create and mobilize their network connections within and between organizations to gain access to other social actors' resources' (Knoke 1999, p. 18). |
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Portes |
'the ability of actors to secure benefits by virtue of membership in social networks or other social structures' (Portes 1998, p. 6). |
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Internal/ Bonding/ Linking
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Brehm Rahn |
'the web of cooperative relationships between citizens that facilitate resolution of collective action problems' (Brehm and Rahn 1997, p. 999). |
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Coleman |
'Social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity, but a variety of different entities having two characteristics in common: They all consist of some aspect of social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of individuals who are within the structure' (Coleman 1990, p. 302). |
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Fukuyama |
'the ability of people to work together for common purposes in groups and organizations' (Fukuyama 1995, p. 10).
'Social capital can be defined simply as the existence of a certain set of informal values or norms shared among members of a group that permit cooperation among them' (Fukuyama 1997). |
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Inglehart |
'a culture of trust and tolerance, in which extensive networks of voluntary associations emerge' (Inglehart 1997, p. 188). |
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Portes Sensenbrenner
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'those expectations for action within a collectivity that affect the economic goals and goal' seeking behavior of its members, even if these expectations are not oriented toward the economic sphere' (Portes and Sensenbrenner 1993, p. 1323). |
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Putnam |
'features of social organization such as networks, norms, and social trust that facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefit' (Putnam 1995, p. 67). |
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Thomas |
'those voluntary means and processes developed within civil society which promote development for the collective whole' (Thomas 1996, p. 11). |
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Both types
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Loury |
'naturally occurring social relationships among persons which promote or assist the acquisition of skills and traits valued in the marketplace. . . an asset which may be as significant as financial bequests in accounting for the maintenance of inequality in our society' (Loury 1992, p. 100). |
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Nahapiet Ghoshal |
'the sum of the actual and potential resources embedded within, available through, and derived from the network of relationships possessed by an individual or social unit. Social capital thus comprises both the network and the assets that may be mobilized through that network' (Nahapiet and Ghoshal 1998, p. 243). |
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Pennar |
'the web of social relationships that influences individual behavior and thereby affects economic growth' (Pennar 1997, p. 154). |
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Schiff |
'the set of elements of the social structure that affects relations among people and are inputs or arguments of the production and/or utility function' (Schiff 1992, p. 160) |
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Woolcock |
'the information, trust, and norms of reciprocity inhering in one's social networks' (Woolcock 1998, p. 153). |
As previously identified, all studies must discuss social capital in relation to the particular discipline, study level, and context and that a set definition for such is not required, only an identification of operationalization or conceptualization. Therefore this study will not create a new definition of social capital and will not select an existing definition from the literature as doing so limits the application and understanding of the concept. This study will identify an appropriate operationalization and conceptualization for social capital in following sections. The above discussion of definitions should provide ample understanding of the social capital concept. Click here for the reference list
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Comments about this articlecomprehensive and easily understood by student like me
lunecia segundo (Friday 4th of May 2012) Excellent. Thorough. Well written. Outstanding source.
Dr MJ Fox (Wednesday 18th of April 2012) Great article, good summary and it give systematic view on social capital
boogii (Sunday 18th of March 2012) In a world in which people everywhere are enjoying higher levels of education and an increasing consciousness of their social and other rights, there is no escaping the need to ensure that financial-industrial systems are designed primarily to serve majority needs. If these are ignored then civil chaos on a global scale will inevitably follow.
The British industrial publicist and prolific writer, Robert Corfe, is a leading authority in pointing the way ahead in his major 3-volume work, Social Capitalism in Theory & Practice, published by Arena Books. In this book he politicises issues which hitherto have been beyond the radar screen of political life, e.g., through his in-depth differentiation between Social and Unsocial Wealth Creation; benign Productive capitalism versus malign Rentier capitalism; Productive profitability versus Rentier profitability; and desirable and undesirable modes for the financing of industrial investment.
In addition, he describes how financial markets may be made to work for home-based industry; how industrial associations are failing in their proper purpose; how workers and bosses may combine in the struggle against de-industrialisation; the need for re-defining the meaning of free trade; reforming the company for greater fairness and efficiency; an analysis of those self-proclaimed “industrialists” amongst the super-rich who are destroying rather than contributing to the cause of Social Wealth Creation; and a 50-page declaration of Social Capitalist values – amongst many other topics touching on the material well-being of the majority.
Robert Corfe has spent a lifetime in senior management in industry as well as involvement in politics and other spheres of public life. In 1987 he established the Campaign for Industry, supported by leading industrialists, an association for which he wrote many incisive pamphlets on the problems of commercially viable productivity. His biography is available on Amazon and other websites – and his books are also available on Kindle as well as print. He may be contacted on robertcorfe@tiscali.co.uk .
Robert Corfe (Sunday 29th of January 2012) Great resource, thanks!!
Lil (Friday 27th of January 2012) Such a helpful article. Thanks very much for all who prepared it.
Maxi (Thursday 12th of January 2012) Thanks for your comment Patty.
I would describe capacity building as improving human capital rather than changing social capital although capacity building could be argued to be the building of any productive assets of a person which would include some aspects of social capital.
Community Engagement (process) > Capacity Building (outcome) > Social Capital (outcome)
The process of successful community engagement results in human capital benefits (in terms of capacity building - eg knowledge, skills, processes) and social capital benefits (in terms of bridging networks - eg trust, belonging, information flows, etc).
Please feel free to email me. I'd be happy to discuss further.
Tristan Claridge (Wednesday 4th of January 2012) I work for Cancer Council NSW .I have had trouble differentiating between 'social capital' and capacity building
Does this make sense?
For the purposes of this paper Cancer Council social capital will be defined as the cumulative, cooperative, action of capacity building that results in an outcome of successful community engagement. When social capital reaches ‘tipping point’ positive change in cancer control will follow because we have been able to build social capital
Community Engagement (relationship) > Capacity Building (process) > Social Capital (outcome)
Patty Delaney (Wednesday 4th of January 2012) it is very helpful to me in developing the individual and as a group social network...
ahmad shahbaz (Monday 26th of December 2011) it helped me alot in my research work..
lubna (Wednesday 14th of December 2011) Thoughts,linkages to diverse groups. Informative
Michelle (Monday 28th of November 2011) Extremely interesting and informative
Laura Braeunig (Wednesday 23rd of November 2011) thanks a lot
peter nyambayi (Wednesday 2nd of November 2011) Very interesting, congratulations!
Paulo Bento (Monday 17th of October 2011) Very interesting. It's broadened my appreciation of social capital. We need to look into how social capital is created and sustained for economic benefits.
Kwame Adu-Sarkodie (Wednesday 28th of September 2011) It's really wondering
Mahadie Hasan (Sunday 25th of September 2011) I should have read your web earlier.....I am now doing thesis on sc.thanks for yr sharing. the literature quality is quite good
ep (Saturday 27th of August 2011) thanks for the good definitions but there is need for more elaboration on the categorization of these definitions as external/internal categories.
Farnaz (Thursday 23rd of June 2011) It economic defination i need
Ade (Tuesday 26th of April 2011) Great article! However, where is your reference list?
Sociologist (Friday 25th of March 2011) best article,i had a need of such type of info about social capital
anwar ali malik (Sunday 20th of March 2011) The literature is great,and very concise...
Chioma Akalezi (Sunday 20th of March 2011) comprehensive and outstanding. Thanks.
Tahabub Alam (Friday 4th of March 2011) I like the comparisons masde between different schools of thought.
mary (Tuesday 15th of February 2011) Nice defination and brilliant content.
Thanks you so much
Jack Onek (Thursday 6th of January 2011) thanks for your indeavors,i have assumed
that this theory coorelated with the
theory of Fuctionalism
ahmedsalad g.kolmie (Saturday 11th of December 2010) oya, i have sth to add. after reviewing to the original version of the tables above, maybe you missed "external" types on the first column. thanks
asian undergrad (Wednesday 8th of December 2010) great works!! iam an undergrad and really hard to find literature about social capital in my univ. this help me a lot. however, if i'd like to cite the table of definition from Adler n Kwon above, do I have to write it as it is?(the definitions that I don't cite directly, should I write the end note and add it on my reference?
thanks a lot for your help
asian undergrad (Wednesday 8th of December 2010) NICE TO THIS ALL. AND I HAVE LEARNT SUCH THINGS TO BE ADOPTED IN MY LIFE
TANU (Tuesday 16th of November 2010) Thank you, very much!
Lena (Tuesday 9th of November 2010) Excellent, thanks Tristan!
Fred (Tuesday 9th of November 2010) Hi Fred, the reference list can be found here.
Tristan (Wednesday 3rd of November 2010) Is there a list of refernces for this article??
Fred (Wednesday 3rd of November 2010) Thanks Tristan, this article helped me to get a good intro into the subject and list several future readings.
best regards
Benjamin
Benjamin Rosenthal (Thursday 7th of October 2010) i like this article....thank you..
alex (Friday 1st of October 2010) thanks for this literature....
andre (Friday 1st of October 2010) An attempt to develop quite an exhaustive explanation on social capital
Manmeet (Tuesday 3rd of August 2010) This page has given me some good ideas to conceptualise social capital in relation to studying indigenous health this semester. Thanks!
Kay (Thursday 29th of July 2010) this article has introduced an interesting categorized definition of social capital
elham (Sunday 16th of May 2010) tanks. its good. but pleas refer to newest author
hasan (Tuesday 20th of April 2010) thanks!
zenitram (Sunday 4th of April 2010) I have learned something at my 62nd year of life.
Andrew A.Thangaraj (Thursday 25th of March 2010)
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